HISTORY OF TANZANIA

Uncharted territory: to the 19th century
In the uncharted centuries of prehistory, Tanzania is criss-crossed by tribal trade routes linking the Great Lakes (Victoria and Tanganyika) with the coast. These are the same routes along which Arab traders subsequently move inland, searching for slaves and ivory. In a second wave of penetration by outsiders, Europeans use Bagamoyo (opposite Zanzibar) as their starting point for exploration inland. Burton and Speke do so in 1856, as does Stanley in 1871 and again in 1874. But the most significant visitor to the region turns out to be Karl Peters, a young man with a feverish enthusiasm for the notion of a German empire.
Peters, with two companions, spends a few weeks at the end of 1884 moving at frantic speed within the sultan of Zanzibar's mainland territories. The trio arrive in each new region with blank treaty forms and German flags. They fill in the local chief's name and persuade him to make his mark on the document and to run up a flag. Then they move on. Grievously under-equipped and soon short of food, they only just manage to make their way back to the coast. But Peters, returning to Berlin, has an exciting proposition to put to Bismarck - who is himself in high imperial mood, with his Berlin colonial conference still in progress. A German east African colony, Peters tells him, is there for the taking.
In February 1885 Bismarck grants Peters a charter for an East African protectorate, but the fact is kept secret until the colonial conference has ended. Meanwhile Peters recruits more agents in Africa to continue the work of distributing treaty forms. Their instructions are to be schnell, kühn, rücksichtslos (swift, daring, ruthless). When the sultan of Zanzibar hears of the proposed protectorate on his territory, he sends a protest to the German emperor. It reaches Berlin in May. Bismarck asks Peters what the response should be. Peters replies that there is a lagoon facing the sultan's palace in Zanzibar, deep enough for warships to anchor in.
A German-British carve up: 1885-1886
On 7 August 1885 five German warships steam into the lagoon of Zanzibar and train their guns on the sultan's palace. They have arrived with a demand from Bismarck that Sultan Barghash cede to the German emperor his mainland territories or face the consequences. But in the age of the telegram, gunboat diplomacy is no longer a local matter. This crisis is immediately on desks in London. Britain, eager not to offend Germany, suggests a compromise. The two nations should mutually agree spheres of interest over the territory stretching inland to the Great Lakes. This plan is accepted before August is out.
The embarrassed British consul finds himself under orders from London to persuade the sultan to sign an agreement ceding the lion's share of his mainland territory, with the details still to be decided. In September the German gunships begin their journey home. A joint Anglo-German boundary commission starts work in the interior. By November 1886 the task is done and the result is agreed with the other main colonial power, France. The sultan is left a strip ten miles wide along the coast. Behind that a line is drawn to Mount Kilimanjaro and on to Lake Victoria at latitude 1° S. The British sphere of influence is to be to the north, the German to the south. The line remains to this day the border between Kenya and Tanzania.
German East Africa: 1886-1916
The administration of the territory in the agreement of 1886 is handed over to Karl Peters' German East Africa Company. The company extends its territory to the sea from 1888, by buying a lease of the coastal strip which was left in the sultan of Zanzibar's possession. But local resentment leads to a Muslim uprising in that year which is only suppressed after the arrival of German troops (assisted on this occasion by the British navy). The inadequacy of the company causes the German government to take direct control in 1891. But Karl Peters retains his involvement, being appointed imperial commissioner.
There follow two decades in which the German authorities make considerable efforts to develop their east African colony. A railway is built from Dar es Salaam to Tabora and then on to Ujiji. New crops, such as sisal and cotton, are introduced and prove very successful - as also is the development of coffee plantations on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. But this energetic German presence is profoundly resented by the African tribes, particularly when the harsh methods of forced labour are used in the cultivation of the new and alien crops. The result, in 1905, is a widespread popular rebellion which becomes known as the Maji-Maji rising.
Maji is the Swahili for 'water'. The rising gets its name because the belief spreads among the African workers that a magic potion of water, castor oil and millet seeds can turn German bullets to water. In August 1905 the drums begin to broadcast the news that cotton plants are being pulled up rather than tended, in a symbolic gesture of resistance. The excitement spreads throughout much of the colony, as people drink the potion and set off on a rampage wearing headbands woven from the stalks of millet, the indigenous crop. Soon, inevitably, there are murderous attacks on Germans and the burning of their houses.
Reinforcements arrive from Germany in October 1905, by which time many of the Maji-Maji have already begun to discover that German bullets do not turn to water. The German commander, General von Götzen, uses a strategy hardly more humane than that of his colleague von Trotha in Namibia, whose brutality has caused an international outcry only a year previously. Von Götzen decides that in the long term only famine will bring these rebellious workers to heel. He instructs his troops to move through the country destroying crops, removing or burning any grain already harvested, and putting entire villages to the torch.
It is estimated that about 250,000 Africans die in the resulting famine. German East Africa, like German South West Africa, acquires in its early years a besmirched colonial record. Meanwhile Karl Peters, the originator of this colony, has in 1897 been tried and convicted in a Potsdam court for brutal offences committed in Africa. They include his response to the suspicion that one of his servants may have slept with his African mistress. The young girl is flogged and then both are hanged. These scandals shock Berlin sufficiently for reforms in colonial policy to be hastily put in place. But any likely benefit is cut short by the onset of World War I. Early in 1916 British forces move south from Kenya to occupy German East Africa.
British Mandate: 1919-1962
After the end of the war the treaty of Versailles, in 1919, grants Britain a League of Nations mandate to govern the former German East Africa - which now acquires a new name, Tanganyika. British policy from the 1920s onwards is to encourage indigenous African administration along traditional lines, through local councils and courts. A legislative council is also established in Dar es Salaam, but African members are not elected to this until after World War II. By then local political development is an obligation under the terms of UN trusteeship, in which Britain places Tanganyika in 1947.
During the 1950s a likely future leader of Tanganyika emerges in the person of Julius Nyerere. Son of a chief, a convert to Roman Catholicism while studying at Makerere college in Uganda, then an undergraduate for three years in Edinburgh university, Nyerere returns to Tanganyika in 1953. He immediately founds a political party, TANU or the Tanganyika African National Union (evolving it from an earlier and defunct Tanganyika African Association). From the start its members feature prominently in elections to the legislative assembly. When independence follows, in 1961, Nyerere becomes the new nation's prime minister. In 1962 Tanganyika adopts a republican constitution and Nyerere is elected president.
Republic of Tanzania: 1964-1985
In 1964 Nyerere reaches an agreement with Abeid Karume, president of the offshore island of Zanzibar which has been so closely linked in its history to the mainland territory of Tanganyika. The two presidents sign an act of union, bringing their nations together as the United Republic of Tanzania. Nyerere becomes president of the new state, with Karume as his vice-president. Nyerere, by instinct an idealistic socialist, guides his country along lines which often have a utopian touch. Local self-sufficiency is emphasized. Traditional and simple solutions are sought for local problems rather than relying on technological foreign imports. Great importance is placed on education and literacy, in which excellent results are achieved.
Nyerere declares his political creed in a document of 1967 known as the Arusha Declaration. This announces the introduction of a socialist state and is accompanied by the nationalization of key elements in the economy. With such policies Nyerere inevitably has to rely on help from the eastern bloc, and in particular China. Nevertheless he is able to maintain his declared international stance of non-alignment. The Arusha Declaration puts agriculture at the centre of the national economy and introduces a programme of 'villagization' - meaning the moving of peasant families into cooperative villages where they can supposedly work together more productively.
As elsewhere where such cooperatives have been tried (in particular Mao Tse-tung's China, a source of inspiration to Nyerere), they prove both unpopular and inefficient. When Nyerere relinquishes executive power voluntarily in 1985 (a rare act in modern African history, and certainly one with no appeal to Mao), he admits that his economic policies have failed. But in his twenty-three years in office he has established an impressive reputation as an independent and free-thinking African statesman - willing to sever relations with the UK (1965-8) because of British acceptance of racist Rhodesia and South Africa, but also taking on the OAU (as when he recognizes Biafra's secession in 1968).
Chama Cha Mapinduzi: from1977
From 1965 each part of the union has only one political party, but they are different parties - TANU in Tanganyika and ASP (Afro-Shirazi Party) in Zanzibar. In 1977 they merge as the CCM or Chama Cha Mapinduzi (Revolutionary Party). When Nyerere stands down as president, in 1985, he remains chairman of the CCM and as such retains an important voice in the formulation of general policy. For the executive post of president the party puts forward only one candidate, Ali Hassan Mwinyi. However, by the early 1990s there is irresistible pressure - here as elsewhere in Africa - for the introduction of multiparty democracy.
President Mwinyi promulgates a new democratic constitution in 1992, with the stipulation that political parties will only be registered if they are active in both Tanganyika and Zanzibar and if they are not identified with specific religious, regional, tribal or racial groups. Elections are held in 1995. The CCM just wins in Zanzibar, where opposition anger at electoral malpractice disrupts polital life for the rest of the decade. In Tanganyika the CCM candidate Benjamin Mkapa is elected president of the union, but only after all his rivals have withdrawn from the race alleging ballot-rigging.
During the 1990s very great strain is placed on an already impoverished Tanzania by the ethnic conflicts over the border in Rwanda and Burundi. During a single 24-hour period in 1994 as many as 250,000 Rwandan refugees stream into Tanzania. Eventually the total is 550,000 from Rwanda and 100,000 from Burundi. Many of them are still in Tanzania at the end of the decade. In Dar es Salaam a hopeful sign is the progress of an anti-corruption campaign launched by President Mkapa. In 1997 more than 1500 civil servants are dismissed on these grounds

on Thursday, 30 July 2015

MotherBoard

Motherboard as the name suggests is the mother of all components of computer.It has different names like System Board or Main Board. Mother boards come in lots of Configuration and types. I have tried to cover almost all Basic types starting from early 90's till date.
Different Series of motherboards:

     
                                                                                                    

                                                                                                                         

1. Expansion Slots: Also called I/O Bus Slots are used to connect add-on cards like Graphics card,Lan cards,TV out cards etc.All the cards are connected in parallel i.e any card can be inserted an any of the slots.Types of slots are:
a) ISA slots: ISA means Industry Standard Architect.They are Black in colour, 98-pin connectors. The slots supported16-bit data path.ISA slots were available in 286/386/486-motherboards.
b)PCI slots: PCI means Peripheral Component Interface. They are white in colour , PCI slots supported 64-bit data path that means data now travels much faster than ISA slots.PCI slots were available from 486/pentium series computers.

2.Memory Slots: The slots hold memory (RAM) modules.Different memory slots are:
a)SIMM slots: Single Inline Memory Modules SIMMs come in 30-pin and 72-pin formats.These slots were available upto 386 boards.
b) DIMM slots: Double Inline Memory Modules.They come in different pin formats starting from 100 pin.Dimm slots started from pentium series motherboards.

3.Processor Socket: This is the area where you insert your processor.There are diffrent type of sockets for different type of processors. Some of the Socket types are:           

Socket Type	No. of Pins	Supported Processors
Socket 7	321	AMD K5 / K6 / K6-2 / K6-III Cyrix  MII ,Intel Pentium, Pentium MMX
Socket 370	370	Intel Celeron  Intel Pentium III  VIA C3
Socket 775	775	Intel Celeron, Intel Dual-Core , Intel Core 2 Duo , Intel Core 2 Quad Core Intel Pentium 4 Intel Xeon
Socket 1156	1156	Intel Celeron Dual-Core Intel Core i3 Intel Core i5 ,Intel Core i7 ,Intel Pentium Dual-Core , Intel Xeon
Socket 1366	1366	Core i-7 900 series

4.BIOS ROM: Acronym for Basic Input Output System . A permanent memory chip that contains all the basic information about motherboard like display chip , ports and other functions.You can change the BIOS settings by entering BIOS of motherboard for optimum use.

5. CMOS Cell: This is a 3.0 DC volt Battery cell responsible for backing up voltage supply to BIOS .It is this cell which keeps your date and Time up to date.

6. Power Connector: The connector where the motherboard gets the input DC supply from SMPS.
a) AT connector: Available in older motherboards upto 486-supported-boards
   This is a 12-pin( 2 x 6pin) connector. Commonly called as P8 and P9 connectors
b) ATX connector: Available on all currently available motherboards.ATX connection comes in 20 pin and 24 pin connector.

 7. IDE connector: IDE means Integerated Drive Electronics which is a standard for Disk Inerface.
a) 40-pin connector: This is used to connect Hard Disk Drive. A IDE 40 pin Cable is used as a interface to connect hard disk to motherboard. A maximum of two hard disks can be attached on a single IDE port.
b) 34-pin connector: This is used to connect Floppy Disk Drive. A IDE 34 pin Cable is used as a interface to connect hard disk to motherboard.A maximum of two Floppy Disk Drives can be attached on a single IDE port.

8.SATA connector: "Serial Advanced Technology Attachment," or "Serial ATA." is used to connect hard disk drives to motherboard. The SATA cable has 7 pins and transfers the data at a much better speed as compared to 40-pin cables which work on "Parallel ATA" technology.

9.Co-Processor: A processor which is factory mounted on the motherboard. It helps main CPU in shouldering the responsibilities or functions of main processor.It accelerated the performance of computer by offloading some of the tasks of main processor. 

10. Cabinet Connections: The Cabinet , we use, has many connectors of its own to be connected on motherboard like:

• Power button 
• Reset Button
• Hard Disk LED
• Power ON LED
• Front Audio Jack
• Front USB Jack

11. I/O interface connectors

on Friday, 17 July 2015

Types of Motherboard

A motherboard is the heart of a computer. It is the main printed circuit board present in the computers which holds the main electronic components of the system like the central processing unit and memory and also provides the connectors for other important peripherals. A motherboard is a large system in itself which contains a number of subsystems like the processor and other components. The basic function for which a motherboard is used in a computer is that it holds the important electronic components of the system including the memory and central processing unit and helps in establishing some sort of bridged connection between other internal components of the system. This well written article about the parts and functions of a motherboard will give you more information about all the important parts of a motherboard and the functions performed by these parts in proper detail.


The understanding of the components and functions of a motherboard is also important if you want to be able to design your own computer. As the motherboard is the most important part of a computer system, understanding its components and working properly is very important to be able to design and build your own computer. This course about how to build a computer will help you in understanding the importance of a motherboard in a computer system and will provide you with all the information about building your very own computer system.

Here we are going to study about the different types of motherboard which are available. We will discuss each of these types in detail and will see how all these are different from each other. Let us now start our discussion about the different types of motherboard.

AT Motherboard

An AT motherboard is a motherboard which has dimensions of the order of some hundred millimeters, big enough to be unable to fit in mini desktops. The dimensions of this motherboard make it difficult for the new drives to get installed. The concept of six pin plugs and sockets is used so as to work as the power connectors for this type of motherboards.

The hard to distinguish power connector sockets make it difficult for many users to easily make the proper connections and thus leading to the damage of the device.
Produced in the mid 80’s, this motherboard lasted a good span from the Pentium p5 to the times when Pentium 2 had been started to be used.

ATX Motherboard

Advanced technology extended, or popularly known as the ATX, are the motherboards which were produced by the Intel in mid 90’s as an improvement from the previously working motherboards such as AT.
This type of motherboards differ from their AT counterparts in the way that these motherboards allow the interchangeability of the connected parts. Moreover the dimensions of this motherboard are smaller than the AT motherboards and thus proper place for the drive bays is also allowed.
Some good changes were also made to the connector system of the board. The AT motherboards had a keyboard connector and on the back plates extra slots were provided for various add-ons.

LPX Motherboard

The low profile extension motherboards, better known as LPX motherboards, were created after the AT boards in the 90’s.
The major difference between these and previous boards is that the input and output ports in these boards are present at the back of the system. This concept proved to be beneficial and was also adopted by the AT boards in their newer versions. The use of a riser card was also made for the placement of some more slots. But these riser cards also posed a problem that the air flow was not  proper.
Also, some low quality LPX boards didn’t even have real AGP slot and simply connected to the PCI bus. All these unfavored aspects led to the extinction of this motherboard system and was succeeded by the NLX.

BTX Motherboard

BTX stands for Balanced Technology extended.
BTX was developed to reduce or avoid some of the issues that came up while using latest technologies. Newer technologies often demand more power and they also release more heat when implemented on motherboards in accordance with the circa-1996 ATX specification. The ATX standard and the BTX standard, both were proposed by Intel. The further development of BTX retail products was canceled in September 2006 by Intel after the acceptance of Intel’s decision to focus again on low-power CPUs after suffering issues such as scaling and thermal with the Pentium 4.

The first company to use, or to be precise, implement BTX was Gateway Inc, followed by Dell and MPC. Apple’s MacPro uses only some of the elements of the BTX design system but it is not BTX compliant. This type of motherboard has some improvements over previous technologies:

• Low-profile – With the larger demand for ever-smaller systems, a redesigned backplane that shaves inches off the height requirements is a benefit to system integrators and enterprises which use rack mounts or blade servers.

• Thermal design – The BTX design provides a straighter path of airflow with lesser difficulties, which results in better overall cooling capabilities. Instead of a dedicated cooling fan, a large 12 cm case-fan is mounted, that draws its air directly from outside the computer and then cools the CPU through an air duct. Another feature of BTX is the vertical mounting of the motherboard on the left-hand side. This kind of feature results in the graphics card heat sink or fan facing upwards, rather than in the direction of the adjacent expansion card.

• Structural design – The BTX standard specifies distinct locations for hardware mounting points and hence reduces latency between key components. It also reduces the physical strain imposed on the motherboard by heat sinks, capacitors and other components which are dealing with electrical and thermal regulation.
  

Pico BTX Motherboard

Pico BTX is a motherboard form factor that is meant to manufacture even smaller size BTX standard. This is smaller than many current “micro” sized motherboards, hence the name “Pico” has been used. These motherboards share a common top half with the other sizes in the BTX line, but they support only one or two expansion slots, designed for half-height or riser-card applications.

In the initial stages of usage, the ATX and BTX motherboards were so analogous that moving a BTX motherboard to an ATX case was possible and vice-versa. At later stages, the BTX form factor had a large modification which was done by turning it into a mirror image of the ATX standard. Technically speaking, BTX motherboards are ‘left side-right’ when compared to ATX and not upside-down as before. This means they are mounted on the opposite side of the case.

Various computer cases for instance, the Cooler Master Series (Stackers) were released to support a wide range of motherboard standards such as ATX, BTX, Mini-ATX and so on, in order to simplify motherboard development without buying a new case; however, all connector and slot standards are identical, including PCI(e) cards, processors, RAM, hard drives, etc.
BTX power supply units can be exchanged with latest ATX12V units, but not with older ATX power supplies that don’t have the extra 4-pin 12V connector.

Mini ITX Motherboard

Mini-ITX is a 17 × 17 cm (6.7 × 6.7 in) low-power motherboard form factor. It was designed by VIA Technologies in year 2001. These are largely used in small form factor (SFF) computer systems. Mini-ITX boards can also be cooled easily because of their low power consumption architecture. Such an architecture makes them widely useful for home theater PC systems or systems where fan noise can diminish the quality or worth of cinema experience. The four mounting holes in a Mini-ITX board line up with the four holes in ATX specification motherboards, and the locations of the back plate and expansion slot are the same^. Although, one of the holes used was optional in earlier versions of the ATX. Hence, Mini-ITX boards can be used in places which are designed for ATX, micro-ATX and other ATX variants if required.

The Mini-ITX form factor has location for one expansion slot, pertaining to a standard 33 MHz 5V 32-bit PCI slot. However, often case designs use riser cards and some even have two-slot riser cards, even when the two-slot riser cards are not usable with all the boards. A few boards based around non-x86 processors have a 3.3V PCI slot, and the Mini-ITX 2.0 (2008) boards have a PCI-express ×16 slot. Such boards are not used with the standard PCI riser cards supplied with cases.

Now that you know how to choose your motherboard you can also build your dream PC using it. Every PC requires an operating system and you can check out this interesting blog post on choosing the right operating system for your PC. This article provides a detailed outline of two of the most popular operating systems, Linux and Windows, allowing you to determine which will suite your needs better. However, if you want to learn more about these operating systems before making a choice, check out this online course for an in-depth introduction to Linux or this online course if you want to master Windows 8. 

Another important aspect about using the proper motherboard for your computer is that it affects the speed of the computer system. A good motherboard, which will be properly compatible with the components of a computer system, will enhance the speed of the computer, while a motherboard which is not compatible with the components of a computer system will negatively affect the speed of the system. This course about how to speed up your computer will give you a better understanding about the role a motherboard plays in the efficient and high speed working of a computer system and will give you important information about the ways to improve the speed of your computer

on

Computer - Motherboard

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. A motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard

A motherboard comes with following features:

• Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
• Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
• Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to be compatible with motherboard to function properly
• Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.

Popular Manufacturers

• Intel
• ASUS
• AOpen
• ABIT
• Biostar
• Gigabyte
• MSI

Description of Motherboard

The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.

There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards and other expansion cards can be connected to motherboard.

On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports which allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion for example, pen drive, digital cameras etc

on

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

---

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

Sr.No.	Type	Specifications
1	PC (Personal Computer)	It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful microprocessor
2	WorkStation	It is also a single user computer system which is similar to personal computer but have more powerful microprocessor.
3	Mini Computer	It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.
4	Main Frame	It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is different from minicomputer.
5	Supercomputer	It is an extremely fast computer which can execute hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, Workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer

It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe

Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of programs

Supercomputer

Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

on

Computer

I, Computer: Definition

A computer is a machine that can be programmed to manipulate symbols. Its principal characteristics are:

• It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.
• It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).
• It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.

Therefore computers can perform complex and repetitive procedures quickly, precisely and reliably. Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery (wires, transistors, and circuits) is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software. All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:

• Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions organized in programs ("software") which tell the computer what to do.
• Memory (fast, expensive, short-term memory): Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data, programs, and intermediate results.
• Mass storage device (slower, cheaper, long-term memory): Allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data and programs between jobs. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.
• Input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a computer.
• Output device: A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished.

In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.

II, Computer sizes and power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:

• Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.
• Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.
• Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users simultaneously.
• Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
• Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

Minicomputer

It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation

It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area network. It could be a workstation or a personal computer.

Personal computer:

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general, though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the operating system, there are several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal computers and workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC. 

III, Personal Computer Types

Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components. Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. If you want to insert more boards than there are slots, you will need an expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. There are two basic flavors of chassis designs–desktop models and tower models–but there are many variations on these two basic types. Then come the portable computers that are computers small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook and subnotebook computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

Tower model

The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which these components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices easier. 

Desktop model

A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.

Notebook computer

An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.

Laptop computer

A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers.

Subnotebook computer

A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer. Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise equivalent to notebook computers.

Hand-held computer

A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s hand. Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

Palmtop

A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

PDA

Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also incorporate handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become common gadgets.

PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

on

Investigation in districts

China is by far the dominant producer of rare earth elements, accounting for 94 per cent of global production. Significant amounts of REE are produced in only a few other countries, such as Brazil, India and Malaysia. More than 70 per cent of light rare earth elements are supplied from one mine in China: the 56 million tonne Bayan Obo deposit in Inner Mongolia, which commenced production in 1957 and is the largest deposit in the world.

In 2010, it produced 55,000 tons of REOs, representing 46 per cent of Chinese production and 42 per cent globally. Before the Bayan Obo deposit came on stream, the largest producer was Molycorp's Mountain Pass deposit in California. However, China started selling rare earths at such low prices in the early 1990's that the Mountain Pass mines and others in the world were unable to compete.

Mining at Mountain Pass ceased in 2002 but was recently re-commissioned and is expected to return to full production in 2012." However, this scenario might change once the deposits in Chunya start being exploited. "The rare earth elements were first spotted in Ngualla, Chunya in 1949.

However, they were not identified as rare earth minerals. Between 1957 and 1961, nobium, one of the elements, was identified. The exploration was done by Williamson who had discovered diamonds in Mwadui, Shinyanga some previous years. "They aimed at exploring some other diamond deposits.

The first report of the possibility of having these rare earth elements was based on satellite image interpretation in 1989. In 2006, the Australian company, Peak Resources Limited started the exploration in Ngualla," Eng Mremi explains. The Australian Proactive Investor's website reported that,Peak Resources Limited was on track to complete in early 2014 the key Preliminary Feasibility Study for its wholly-owned Ngualla Rare Earth Project in Tanzania.

Notably, this would include a revised economic assessment that is likely to reflect the benefit that rising prices for the key high value rare earths would have on projected annual revenue. The Pre-Feasibility Study that was released by the Peak Resources Limited indicates that the Ngualla rare earth project has ore reserve of 20.7 million tons at 4.54 per cent rare earth oxides.

According to the Managing Director of Peak Resources, Darren Townsend, "the Ore Reserve is one of the world's largest outside of China and is also of high quality with over 86 per cent in the highest JORC Proved category, the company has defined a maiden Ore Reserve of 20.7 million tons at 4.54 per cent rare earth oxides."

on Thursday, 16 July 2015

Tanzania Likely to Become Next Major Producer of 'Rare Earth'

HAVING played host to one of the earliest gold mines in the country, a small dusty town in Mbeya Region is poised to become a significant producer of rare earth elements.
Some 189 kilometres from the district centre in Chunya, to the east of the Lake Rukwa, on the edge of the East African Rift Valley, there lies one of the largest and highest grade rare earth deposits in the world. Rare earth is a mineral that contains more rare earth elements as major metal components.

It consists of 17 elements on the periodic table, including 15 elements beginning with atomic number 57 (lanthanum) and extending through number 71 (lutetium), as well as two other elements having similar properties (yttrium and scandium). These are referred to as "rare" because although relatively abundant in total quantity, they appear in low concentrations in the earth's crust and extraction and processing is both difficult and costly.

According to a study conducted in 2013 by Marc Humphries, a Specialist in Energy Policy based in United States, rare earth elements share many similar properties, which is why they occur together in geological deposits. The 17 rare earth elements (REEs) are found in all rare earth element deposits but their distribution and concentrations vary.

They are referred to as "rare" because it is not common to find them in commercially viable concentrations. According to Eng Donald Mremi, the Resident Mines Officer in Chunya, "China is the largest producer of the rare earth minerals in the world. China has the largest deposits of the elements.

This has enabled her to become the superpower in production of the electronic utensils." His views are supported by a report titled "Dominating the World, China and the Rare Earth Industry" from the National Institute of the Advanced Studies in Bangalore, India.

Their 2013 report explains that, "More recently China has established a dominant position in the global Rare Earths Industry. "It effectively controls the entire global supply chain in Rare Earths. This control extends all the way from mining to the production of key intermediate products such as magnets.

Many of these intermediate products are critical inputs for high growth industries such as hybrid cars, windmills and lighting. These are also the industries in which China is trying to build scale for future dominance." CIBC World Markets Reports of 2013 states that, "In 2010, global REE production was about 125,000 metric tonnes; up 54 per cent from 80,000 tonnes in 2000.

on

HISTORY OF CHUNYA EVANGELISM-TANZANIA.

PROPOSAL ON EVANGELISM-TANZANIA.

I am Rev: SYLVESTER PETER Serving the lord Jesus Christ with Chunya Baptist Church at Mbeya region in Tanzania. Regarding Evangelism, I usually visit Villages, Primary and Secondary Schools, Teaching and preaching the word of God using Bibles and some tracts. You know in my country (Tanzania) nowadays there is a problem of the devil to attack pupils/ Students in Schools/ College some students/ pupils fall down after been attacked by the devil. They usually looses and finally become mad. Hence quit from their normal classes leading to have many youths who lack education in our country. At the beginning of they program (Evangelism) the task seemed to be go tough. We simply made some prayers for those pupils / Students who were demons possessed. We thanked God since they were sent free. After a few months, many schools asked us to visit them for the same purpose. Nowadays the problem in Schools has diminished.

 I , together with my team of 12 members make many visits to schools by providing some text books (Christians books), Bibles, and Tracts, CD, DVD, for teaching pupils. Dear Servant of our Lord, This materials we are receiving from around the world Friendly who are supports us for freely materials for an examples of materials is; Tracts, From: Director of Bible Tracts Inc Mr Mark J. BOOKS FROM: General Secretary John Shin Tracts: Fellowship Tracts League CD/DVD : HANS P. SUSSEMIHL Since we usually use normal teaching materials during our visits is bibles, Tracts which have small impact in Evangelism, we expect in the future to have overhead projector , Screen, DVD Video, Cassettes (Gospel) Generator ( areas where Electricity is not available) for effective Evangelism. Therefore, may you for us to have those important reaching materials. 1. SWAHILI BIBLE This we shall use for our School, Students and villagers Please we need your prayer for us to Get Overhead Projector. Dear Sir/Madam, Your are welcome to visit us and to share together the faith of our Lord to our nation of Tanzania the Region of Mbeya City Distric of CHUNYA.

PLANTING CHURCHES AND DEVELOPMENT

Dear, THE TRANSPLANTING CHURCH VILLAGES MINISTRY Introduction for transplanting village's ministry in Chunya and Tabora Tanzania. This is the ministry which is going and opening the church in to the village and also its making and preparing church which is going to drop down and to make sure church is growth well and to get a Christians economic education and how to use they resources around. TABORA REGION; This region is the biggest than other region of Tanzania so in this region there is Nyamwezi tribal ninety percentage so that in this region they are production AGRICULTRUE AND LIVESTOCK KEEPING; Is an activity, which deals with the growing of crops and livestock keeping. The food crops are crops cultivated by the farmers under small scale agricultural system for family uses. It is not based on making profit.

The cash crops are crops cultivated by the farmers under large scale agricultural system for commercial purpose. The farmers depend on the crops to earn more profit through selling their product. So that many people or Christians their have a small scale agriculture.

Therefore in this both region of Tanzania they are using small scale agriculture like as follow down;
1. The cheaper and simple tools are used like hand hoes, pangas and axes.
2. It is conducted under poor agricultural method like shifting cultivation etc
3. The output produced is very low
4. There are poor infrastructure network
5. Small funds are invested in this agricultural system
6. The labour is every member of the family engaged in this system.

And also many Christians are a traditional system of cultivation where by the people move from one place to another fresh area for expectation of raising production. The farmer burned the forest and sow seeds in the fresh area while the bush following is another traditional farming system where by the people clear the bush and burn the vegetations and hence sowing seeds. This is conducted for four or six years but when the production decreases the farm is left to recover its fertility for nearly nine years or more.

THE EFFECTS OF THIS ARE;
1. Shortage of land
2. Poor living conditions
3. Shortage of food
4. Soil erosion
5. The increases of communicable diseases.

 THE MEASURES CAN BE TAKEN TO IMPROVE THE SMALL SCALE AGRICULTURAL.
1. The farmer or Christians should be give education to practice food farming methods.
2. The government or churches have to provide loans to the farmers.
3. The government or churches have to provide enough capital to the farmers or Christians to make them invest in the production of crops.
4. The technology should be improved.
5. To search for good market of the surplus products MINING GOLD This is the process of obtaining minerals from the earth. And this is available in two both region of Tabora and Mbeya chunya. The surface mining the minerals such as salts are found close to the earth surface as such open cast method of mining is used to exploit them. Under ground mining: The mineral like gold and diamond are found deep in the ground. So here we have many advantage through our mining and through in this our mining we can uses for building our church and Christians development but we have many a reasons

PROBLEMS FACING MINING SECTA IN CHUNYA MBEYA.
1. Lack of capital
2. Lack of good transports
3. The price fluctuation in the market
4. The rising cost of production
5. Lack of good market
6. Lack of water supply
7. Lack of advancement technology

FACTORS INFLUENCES THE DEVELOPMENT OF MINING IN CHUNYA MBEYA.
1. Availability of capital
2. Availability of water supply
3. Availability of power resources eg H.E.P
4. Availability of good infrastructure eg roads
5. Availability of good market

TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS OF MINING INDUSTRIES IN CHUNYA MBEYA.
1. To improve the infrastructure network. E.g roads
2. To improve the power resources e.g H.E.P
3. To improve enough capital
4. To find the good market

OUR VISION FOR TRANSPLANTING CHURCH VILLAGE
1. To opening many church into the village although we are using old traditional tools but this will help many people to souls and to believe in our Lord and Jesus Christ.
2. To provide and spreading the gospel news every around corner of the village and other place.
3. To keeping all Christians the hand of our Lord.
4. To trainee all pastors and church leadership how to uses their resources.
5. To improve all churches to start various projects.
6. To find good markets in Tanzania and from around the world for our projects .
7. To find a supports from our friends
8. Buying modern tools for agriculture activities.
9. To make sure in 2015 the Christians of Tanzania they will have being a good life for using our resources and making trading.
10. To opening bible school, preprimary school. This will help us for our evangelist, pastors, and for pre-school for our children's from all parts of churches.
11. Our Motto in 2020 year`s every church it will building a modern church for using resources and other incomes.
12.To provide the gospel to the village and hence improve their living standard
13. To provide foreign currency through selling different products within the country which encourage the development of the economy.
14. To improve the market situation both internal and external.
15. To improve the infrastructure network in the churches, districts, regions.
16. Buying a motorcycle either car for Christians service in 2020 years, so that this it will express us for making evangelist in to the village and other places of Tanzania.

 Please this is for long planning term for our ministry and our churches for working and opening new station, so we need your prayer and your partnership to working together, sharing the faith of our lord and Jesus Christ, please for making confirmation of this issue you need to visit us and you will see various things and profitable that I not mention in this plan I think you will enjoy, feel free like at your home therefore your welcome to Tanzania. Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. (Matthew 28:19)

on